Parenting Across Cultures: Physical Punishment Linked to Greater Anxiety and Aggression in Children, Study Finds

Throughout the study, children and parents were regularly surveyed and assessed. Frequent physical punishment over time predicted increasing levels of anxiety and aggression in children. The association was weaker in countries where corporal punishment was socially accepted, but the practice offered no benefits in any of the countries studied.

“In the Philippines, corporal punishment is often considered synonymous with discipline. I want to change that: discipline can take many different forms. Children need to be raised with guidance, but not through cruelty or pain,” the psychologist explained.

Another set of findings concerned parental warmth. Rejection, emotional coldness and hostility within the family predicted emotional and behavioral difficulties that persisted from ages 7 to 14. Children who felt valued and accepted were less likely to experience aggression, antisocial behavior, depression and anxiety.

The researchers distinguish between authoritarian parenting, which emphasizes strictness and obedience, and authoritative parenting, which combines clear expectations with warmth, dialogue and respect for a child’s opinions. Authoritarian parenting was most pronounced among the Filipino parents in the study.

Beyond the overall lack of benefits associated with physical punishment, the researchers found that children who helped with household chores and supported their siblings were more likely to grow up willing to help others. Among Filipino families, this involvement also appeared to mitigate some of the negative effects of less effective parenting.

The findings are already being translated into practice. In the Philippines, the Masayang Pamilya (“Happy Family”) program teaches parents practical skills, ranging from ready-made conversation scripts to stress management techniques. An evaluation of the program found a reduction in child maltreatment, with the effects still evident a year later. The program is now being incorporated into mandatory family sessions for recipients of social assistance.

Sweden, one of the nine countries included in the study, became the first country in the world to ban corporal punishment in 1979. Today, more than 60 countries have introduced such bans; Russia is not among them.

The psychologist emphasizes that supporting parents, rather than condemning them, is key to changing parenting practices.

“We are all products of our own histories and of the way we were raised; we simply don’t know another way,” she said. Parents, she added, are often willing to learn new approaches once they are shown practical techniques that work.